A/ 4 s uoT 

Vuo.  University  ol  the  State  oi  New  York  Bulletin 

*^0  YD  O ** 

I ' Entered  as  second-class  matter  August  2,  1913,  at  the  Post  Office  at  Albany,  N.  Y., 

under  the  act  of  August  24,  1912 

Published  fortnightly 


No.  684 


ALBANY,  N.  Y.  April  15,  1919 


fc\lTY  OF  ILUHv 


Visual  Instruction  Division 


OUTLINE  OF  VISUAL  METHOD 

AS  APPLIED  TO 

THE  TEACHING  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA 

TO  A 

FIFTH  GRADE  CLASS  IN  GEOGRAPHY 


ALBANY 

THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  THE  STATE  OF  NEW  YORK 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  THE  STATE  OF  NEW  YORK 


Regents  of  the  University 
With  years  when  terms  expire 

(Revised  to  September  i,  1919) 

1926  Pliny  T.  Sexton  LL.B.  LL.D.  Chancellor  - - Palmyra 

1927  Albert  Vander  Veer  M.D.  M.A.  Ph.D.  LL.D. 

Vice  Chancellor  Albany 

1922  Chester  S.  Lord  M.A.  LL.D.  - - - - - Brooklyn 

1930  William  Nottingham  M.A.  Ph.D.  LL.D.  - - Syracuse 

1923  Abram  I.  Elkus  LL.B.  LL.D.  D.C.L.  - - - New  York 

1924  Adelbert  Moot  LL.D.  - --  --  --  - Buffalo 

1925  Charles  B.  Alexander  M.A.  LL.B.  LL.D. 

Litt.D.  - --  --  --  --  --  --  Tuxedo 

1928  Walter  Guest  Kellogg  B.A.  LL.D.  - - - Ogdensburg 
1920  James  Byrne  B.A.  LL.B.  LL.D.  -----  New  York 

1929  Herbert  L.  Bridgman  M.A.  ------  Brooklyn 

1931  Thomas  J.  Mangan  M.A.  -------  Binghamton 


President  of  the  University  and  Commissioner  of  Education 

John  H.  Finley  M.A.  LL.D.  L.H.D. 

Deputy  Commissioner  and  Counsel 

Frank  B.  Gilbert  B.A. 

Assistant  Commissioner  and  Director  of  Professional  Education 

Augustus  S.  Downing  M.A.  L.H.D.  LL.D. 

Assistant  Commissioner  for  Secondary  Education 

Charles  F.  Wheelock  B.S.  LL.D. 

Acting  Assistant  Commissioner  for  Elementary  Education 

George  M.  Wiley  M.A. 

Director  of  State  Library 

James  I.  Wyer,  Jr,  M.L.S.  Pd.D. 

Director  of  Science  and  State  Museum 

John  M.  Clarke  D.Sc.  LL.D. 

Chiefs  and  Directors  of  Divisions 

Administration,  Hiram  C.  Case 

Agricultural  and  Industrial  Education,  Lewis  A.  Wilson 
Archives  and  History,  James  Sullivan  M.A.  Ph.D. 
Attendance,  James  D.  Sullivan 
Educational  Extension,  William  R.  Watson  B.S. 
Examinations  and  Inspections,  George  M.  Wiley  M.A. 
Library  School,  Frank  K.  Walter  M.A.  M.L.S. 

School  Buildings  and  Grounds,  Frank  H.  Wood  M.A. 
School  Libraries,  Sherman  Williams  Pd.D. 

Visual  Instruction,  Alfred  W.  Abrams  Ph.B. 


c 

u,T 


v«r,  W 
, (L-0  p,  1 

Introductory  Note 


3 

5 

10 

w 


<2S 


j.  Paul  Goode,  professor  of  geography  in  Chicago  University,  at 
a recent  meeting  of  the  Department  of  Superintendence  pointed  out 
clearly  and  forcefully  that  the  great  war  has  brought  to  our  atten- 
tion the  importance  of  the  study  of  geography  and  the  necessity  of 
a new  emphasis  in  the  subject.  There  is  a growing  appreciation  of 
the  need  of  much  more  attention  to  the  geography  of  industry  and 
commerce,  not  a category  of  names  of  places  and  products  but  an 
understanding  of  the  meaning  of  the  position  and  resources  of 
countries  and  cities,  the  means  of  transportation  between  them  and 
the  flow  of  trade. 

South  America  is  a vast  continent  rich  in  natural  resources,  with 
rapidly  increasing  trade  in  which  the  United  States  is  bound  to 
acquire  an:  ever  larger  interest,  it  behooves  the  schools  to  teach  the 
subject  with  this  fact  in  mind. 

The  continent  is  fairly  easy  to  study  because  of  its  relatively 
simple  coast  line  and  relief  and  because  its  industries  are  as  yet 
chiefly  those  associated  with  the  primary  resources  of  mines,  forests, 
grazing  lands  and  soil.  Most  of  the  geographic  facts  concerning 
South  America  to  be  presented  in  the  elementary  school  can  be 
successfully  taught  rather  early  in  the  course. 

The  work  here  outlined  has  actually  been  done  in  a number  of 
classrooms.  The  results  obtained  have  demonstrated  both  the  value 
and  the  practicability  of  such  exercises.  If  the  work  seems  to 
anyone  to  be  more  than  a fifth  grade  class  can  do,  let  it  be  remem- 
bered that  to  insure  his  progress  a pupil  must  be  stimulated  to  reach 
what  lies  just  beyond  what  he  has  yet  done.  Recall  the  observations 
a five  year  old  child  makes  before  entering  school  and  consider  the 
responsibility  of  the  teacher  to  continue  to  awaken  ideas. 

Professor  Goode  says,  It  is  plain  also  that  adequate  teaching  in 
geography  calls  for  a generous  equipment  in  globes,  maps,  atlases 
and  other  texts,  and  pictures,  such  as  photographs,  stereographs  or 
lantern  slides.” 

The  Visual  Instruction  Division  offers  an  exceptionally  well 
selected  collection  of  significant  pictures  and  maps  for  an  objective 
study  of  South  America  and  invites  the  schools  to  make  a thorough 
test  of  what  can  be  accomplished  by  the  visual  method  of  presenta- 
tion. The  following  notes  are  not  offered  as  an  orderly,  general 

[3] 


y 


4 


statement  of  the  visual  method,  but  chiefly  as  an  aid  to  teachers  in 
understanding  some  of  the  aims  of  this  method  and  as  a means  of 
directing  the  use  of  slides  for  intensive  classroom  study  of  a par- 
ticular subject.  The  notes,  therefore,  will  have  their  fullest  value 
when  read  in  connection  with  an  examination  of  the  pictures. 

A.  W.  Abrams 

Chief , Visual  Instruction  Division 


Equipment 

Room.  Any  arrangement  by  which  the  lantern  can  be  used  any 
day  at  the  regular  class  period  without  taking  more  than  a 
minute  to  darken  room,  attach  lantern  and  begin  work.  If  a special 
room  is  provided,  then  all  or  at  least  nearly  all  the  class  work  should 
be  done  in  this  room. 

Let  it  be  understood  at  the  outset  that  the  visual  method  as  here 
outlined  does  not  consist  in  doing  the  usual  book  work  for  several 
days  and  then  “ showing  pictures/’  The  proposed  work  can  not  be 
done  by  occasionally  taking  the  class  to  an  assembly  room  for  a 
lantern  exercise.  Take  the  lantern  to  the  classroom.  Use  a small 
screen,  one  not  larger  than  6 feet  square.  The  back  of  a wall  map 
answers  the  purpose  very  well.  Not  all  the  light  from  the  windows 
need  be  shut  out.  The  necessary  equipment  is  simple  and 
inexpensive. 

Books.  It  is  essential  that  the  class  be  liberally  supplied  with 
books  on  South  America.  There  should  surely  be  sufficient  copies 
of  the  following  to  supply  each  pupil  with  one  book  during  each 
study  period.  Do  not  expect  to  succeed  with  the  method  unless 
such  reading  material  is  provided. 

Allen’s  South  America,  Ginn  & Co. 

Bowman’s  South  America,  Rand  McNally  & Co. 

Carpenter’s  South  America,  American  Book  Co. 

One  copy  each  of  the  following  books  will  be  useful  to  pupils  and 
teachers. 

Glances  at  Ports  and  Harbors  around  South  America,  a reprint 
(1919)  from  the  Bulletin  of  the  Pan  American  Union  for  July 
1917,  and  August  1917.  Washington.  Free. 

Freeman  and  Chandler’s  World's  Commercial  Products  (vege- 
table), Ginn  & Co. 

One  or  two  up-to-date  commercial  geographies. 

A dictionary  or  gazetteer  for  pronunciation  of  names. 

Teachers  should  consult  the  bibliography  given  in  List  28  for 
additional  aids  for  their  own  use.  Peck’s  South  American  Tour 
will  be  found  especially  useful.  Babson’s  The  Future  of  South 
America,  Little,  Brown  and  Co.,  deals  specially  with  commercial 
interests. 

There  are  numerous  notes  in  List  28  not  repeated  in  this  outline. 
Do  not  overlook  them. 


[5] 


6 


Teacming  pupils  how  to  use  books  is  in  itself  a most  important 
function  of  the  school.  There  is  now  too  little  of  it.  It  is  an  essen- 
tial feature  of  the  visual  method. 

Maps.  As  many  wall  maps  as  practicable. 

Besides  school  maps  try  to  procure  such  maps  as  Commercial 
Map  of  Ldtin  America  issued  by  the  Irving  National  Bank,  Wool- 
worth  Bldg.,  New  York,  and  the  Trade  Chart  issued  by  the  same 
bank.  Write  the  'Pan  American  Union,  Washington,  for  maps  and 
descriptive  circulars. 

Special  maps  in  textbooks,  encyclopedias  etc. 

News  items.  Columns  in  the  New  York  and  other  daily  papers, 
especially  the  Monday  issue  of  the  New  York  Sun,  show  the  import- 
ance now  attached  to  South  American  trade.  Make  some  use  of 
them.  Early  in  the  study  show  a picture  of  the  Pan  American 
building,  Washington,  and  explain  the  purpose  of  the  Union. 

Time  Required 

By  close  planning  South  America  can  be  covered  by  the  visual 
method  in  five  or  six  weeks,  but  it  would  be  better  to  extend  the 
period  two  weeks.  Better  results  would  be  secured  if  this  grand 
division  were  studied  only  once  but  thoroughly,  rather  than  gone 
over  two  or  three  times  in  the  usual  way.  Certainly  the  lantern 
should  be  used  in  only  one  grade;  this  should  be  the  one  in  which 
the  first  full  presentation  of  the  subject  is  made,  usually  the  fifth; 

The  Teacher 

The  teacher  must  be  willing  thoroughly  to  familiarize  herself 
with  the  subject  and  further  be  able  to  differentiate  essential  from 
unessential  facts.  Unless  she  is  disposed  to  pursue  her  studies  much 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  textbook,  she  should  not  attempt  this 
method.  Those  teachers  who  have  taken  a class  over  South 
America  in  accordance  with  this  outline  report  that  they  studied 
more  than  usual  but  enjoyed  the  work  and  were  themselves  profited. 
The  teacher  is  herself  to  visualize  correctly  and  vividly  the  different 
regions  and  the  grand  division  as  a whole,  and  to  have  clearly  in 
mind  the  organized  knowledge  with  which  she  is  to  leave  her  pupils 
at  the  end  of  the  period  of  study. 

The  teacher  must  give  the  amount  and  sort  of  study  to  each 
picture  necessary  to  enable  her  to  know  not  merely  the  particular 
things  shown  in  it  but  the  significance  of  these  things  as  represent- 
ing important  aspects  of  the  geography  of  the  continent. 


7 


General  Procedure 

Omit  at  the  beginning  all  study  of  the  grand  division  as  a whole, 
such  as  position  with  reference  to  latitude,  oceans  etc.,  and  also 
general  shape  and  relief.  Do  not  begin  by  teaching  the  name  and 
boundaries  of  each  country,  the  rivers,  the  mountains  etc.  When 
the  several  regions  of  the  continent  have  been  studied  as  outlined 
below  so  the  pupil  has  really  visualized  the  parts,  he  must  see  the 
whole.  It  is  assumed  that  the  pupils  who  are  to  do  this  work  have 
already  acquired  some  notions  of  the  principal  land  and  water 
areas  of  the  earth. 

Every  effort  to  visualize  the  form,  size  and  position  of  a part  of 
the  continent  necessarily  has  some  reference  to  the  whole.  These 
elements  of  the  mental  picture  should  involve  frequent  comparisons 
of  one  place  or  region  with  those  already  studied.  The  result  is  a 
better  understanding  of  the  continent  than  can  be  had  by  reading 
at  the  beginning  statements  concerning  the  whole.  A few  brief 
exercises  on  the  “ drill  map  ” toward  the  end  of  the  course  will  show 
that  time  has  been  gained  by  omitting  at  the  beginning  the  “ conti- 
nent as  a whole.” 

At  the  outset  have  pupils  compute  the  length  of  a degree  of  lati- 
tude and  use  the  result  (nearly  70  miles)  regularly  to  measure  dis- 
tances from  the  maps.  Disregard  meridian  lines  for  estimating 
distances. 

Study  the  pictures  (including  maps)  first;  let  reading  follow.  If 
the  picture  work  is  properly  done,  pupils  will  use  their  textbooks 
and  other  reading  enough  and  to  good  advantage.  Let  it  be  clearly 
understood  that  the  visual  method  does  not  mean  giving  up  the  text- 
book. It  does  call  for  a new  use  of  this  aid  to  study. 

The  notes  here  given  do  not  cover  all  the  pictures  of  the  collec- 
tion nor  do  they  direct  attention  to  all  the  features  worth  studying. 
They  are  only  suggestions.  Each  teacher  must  carefully  select  the 
teaching  points  that  fit  her  purposes  and  can  be  covered  in  the  time 
at  her  disposal. 

Time  to  be  Given  to  Pictures 

Classes  that  have  already  done  this  work  have  given  fully  50  per 
cent  of  the  time  of  the  class  period  each  week  to  study  from  the 
pictures.  It  is  recommended  that  one  day  a week  no  pictures  be 
used.  Let  the  class  period  be  devoted  chiefly  to  teaching,  not  to 
hearing  recitations  on  a portion  of  a text  previously  assigned.  The 
use  of  pictures  is  not  an  extra  exercise;  it  is  a different  method.  If 


8 


larger  results  can  not  be  secured  within  a given  time  through  them, 
there  is  no  warrant  for  the  visual  method.  But  remember  it  is 
ultimate,  not  immediate  results  that  should  be  sought. 

The  course  of  study  does  not  call,  merely  for  an  extended 
body  of  verbal  information  of  which  the  teacher  of  one  grade  is  to 
give  her  pupils  a proportionate  share.  The  most  important  work  of 
the  teacher  of  geography  is  to  teach  pupils  how  to  study  geography. 
Information  is  soon  forgotten;  the  results  of  training  are  felt 
throughout  life.  Have  patience  at  the  beginning  and  proceed 
slowly. 

If  the  class  period  is  used  largely  for  teaching,  that  is,  for  making 
ideas  clear  and  vivid  and  bringing  them  into  organized  form, 
pupils  will  have  time  during  the  study  period  to  read  the  fuller 
descriptions  in  the  reference  books.  A definite  mental  picture 
can  not  be  secured  solely  from  the  brief  statements  of  a textbook. 

Number  of  Slides  to  be  Used  during  One  Exercise 

As  many  slides  should  be  used  during  one  exercise  as  bear  directly 
upon  the  ground  that  can  be  covered  in  first  presentation  of  new 
topics  and  usually  some  needed  in  making  comparison  with  facts 
already  presented.  The  number  will  vary  somewhat  but  will  rarely 
exceed  ten  or  twelve.  The  rule  to  be  followed  absolutely  is  that 
slides  are  not  to  be  shown  for  the  first  time,  with  some  vague  state- 
ments, after  book  study. 


The  Study  Period 

Plan  for  the  study  period  as  carefully  as  for  the  class  period.  In 
many  schools  the  teacher  is  free  for  at  least  a part  of  the  study 
period.  Work  with  pupils.  Direct  their  study.  See  that  they  are 
using  the  books,  maps  and  other  aids  that  have  been  provided.  Let 
certain  pupils  have  at  the  seat  the  slides  on  a given  topic.  (If 
requested  to  do  so,  the  Division  will  send  to  the  school  suitable  boxes 
for  protecting  slides  thus  used  by  the  pupils.)  Encourage  them  to 
pore  over  these  slides  and  try  to  interpret  them.  Photographs  cor- 
responding to  the  slides  are  available  from  the  Visual  Instruction 
Division  and  may  be  placed  upon  a bulletin  board  from  day  to  day 
or  used  by  pupils  at  a reading  table.  Use  pictures  in  the  class  period 
in  such  a way  as  to  challenge  an  attitude  of  inquiry  on  the  part  of 
the  pupil.  Let  him  find  an  answer  in  his  reading  and  through  the 
exercise  of  his  own  mental  powers. 


9 


Use  of  the  Textbook 

Every  pupil  should  have  a textbook  at  hand  for  daily  reference. 
Let  him  see  for  himself  how  the  printed  names  of  places  look  and 
learn  to  spell  them.  Of  course  there  is  to  be  repeated  use  of  the 
maps.  Reference  tables,  usually  ignored,  should  be  brought  into 
use.  The  textbook  presents  a very  condensed  summary  of  facts  that 
is  worth  more  to  the  pupil  after  he  has  done  the  inductive  work 
recommended  than  before. 

Does  a fifth  grade  pupil  know  how  to  use  a book  for  reference? 
Possibly  not,  but  is  it  not  the  function  of  the  school  to  teach  him 
this  and  to  do  so  early  in  the  course? 

Relation  to  English 

What  better  basis  for  oral  and  written  composition  can  pupils 
have  than  the  full,  clear  and  vivid  ideas  they  may  acquire  from 
geography  studied  both  objectively  and  through  extensive  reading, 
particularly  when  the  teacher  has  formed  in  them  the  habit  of  orderly 
procedure  in  making  observation,  has  accustomed  them  to  note 
similarities  and  differences  and  has  led  them  to  draw  conclusions 
from  the  knowledge  acquired?  Geography  makes  its  appeal  to 
imagination.  The  mental  picture  is  no  less  suitable  for  English 
composition  because  it  corresponds  to  a reality.  Surely  not  all 
composition  by  pupils  should  be  story.  The  practical  need  is  for 
ability  to  state  in  a straightforward  but  orderly  way  what  one  person 
wants  to  tell  another  about  some  topic  of  interest.  Why  should  we 
so  often  cast  about  for  a topic  when  some  study  the  pupils  are 
pursuing  offers  so  many  suitable  ones  on  which  their  minds  have 
been  well  filled  with  ideas? 

One  principal  writes,  “We  found  that  we  could  lengthen  the 
geography  period  and  shorten  the  English  period  from  the  fact 
that  during  the  discussion  on  geography  the  pupils  secured  much 
valuable  practice  in  English.” 

Testing  Pupils 

Use  a few  minutes  each  period  in  testing  pupils ; specific  oral 
questions  to  individual  pupils;  one  written  question  for  the  class 
as  often  as  practicable,  some  of  the  answers  read  to  the  class 
immediately  with  comments.  This  is  chiefly  to  give  a standard  of 
measure  of  results  for  guidance  of  pupils. 

The  first  thing  is  to  get  pupils  to  perceive  the  facts,  then  judg- 
ments or  inferences  can  be  made.  Do  not  allow  pupils  to  learn 
verbal  statements  when  they  have  not  visualized  the  facts  back  of 
them. 


10 


Procedure  Illustrated 

The  visual  aspects  of  any  “ thing  ” are  position,  size  and  form 
(always),  color  and  motion  (sometimes) — nothing  else.  For 
example,  Rio  de  Janeiro  harbor:  where  is  it,  in  what  country,  in 
what  part  of  the  continent,  what  resources  lie  back  of  it,  what 
latitude,  into  what  ocean  does  it  open,  where  is  it  with  reference  to 
the  ports  of  the  United  States,  to  those  of  Europe;  size,  large 
enough  to  accommodate  many  vessels  (15  to  17  miles),  deep  enough 
for  largest  ships;  shape,  regular,  somewhat  circular,  nearly  land 
locked,  backed  by  high  ground,  hence  well  protected,  very 
picturesque. 

Use  slides  Fc  RA,  Fc  RA2,  Fc  RA4,  Fc  R2,  Fc  R4,  F 1,  F 4, 
Ez  3.  In  Fc  RA  and  Fc  RA2  orient  the  views  with  maps  Fc  R2 
and  Fc  R4,  that  is,  find  on  the  maps  the  viewpoint  and  the  direction 
in  which  the  observer  in  each  case  is  looking.  This  is  essential 
How  is  Fc  RA2  related  in  position  to  Fc  RA?  Note  how  the  city 
runs  back  between  the  mountains  in  Fc  RA2.  This  view  is  made 
from  the  Corcovado.  Find  this  peak  in  Fc  RA4.  Corcovado  and 
Sugar  Loaf  may  seem  like  unimportant  details.  You  can  not,  how- 
ever, observe  a picture  or  actual  scene  just  by  looking  at  it  as  a 
whole.  These  peaks  are  notable  features  of  the  scenery  of  Rio. 
Use  the  names  of  them  freely.  What  do  the  wooded  areas  on  the 
steep  slopes  of  the  mountains  in  Fc  RA4  tell  about  the  heat  and 
rainfall  of  the  district?  Why  are  no  ships  seen  in  the  pictures? 
The  views  of  the  city  represent  the  residence  portions.  From  map 
Fc  R4  note  where  the  decks  are.  What  is  the  meaning  of  “ pro- 
posed docks”?  Many  millions  of  dollars  are  being  expended  in 
developing  this  an,d  other  harbors  of  South  America.  The  work  is 
going  on  rapidly,  often  with  the  aid  of  foreign  capital.  See  Glances 
at  Ports  and  Harbors. 

Use  F 1 for  location  of  Rio  with  reference  to  Brazil,  to  the  tropic 
of  Capricorn  and  the  Atlantic  ocean. 

With  Ez  3 teach  the  position  of  Rio  with  reference  to  important 
harbors  of  the  United  States  and  Europe.  Have  pupil  point  out  on 
the  screen  where  the  word  Rio  would  appear  on  this  map. 

After  the  country  lying  accessible  to  Rio  has  been  studied,  pupils 
can  infer  and  will  see,  not  memorize,  what  the  exports  are.  Learn- 
ing of  the  absence  of  coal  and  iron,  essential  in  manufacturing,  they 
can  appreciate  what  classes  of  goods  are  brought  into  Rio.  Recur 
to  this  topic  as  the  study  progresses. 


II 


Do  not  begrudge  the  time  spent  here.  If  a pupil  once  visualizes 
Rio  as  a good  harbor,  he  will  thereafter  refer  to  it  in  comparing 
other  harbors.  This  is  real  study.  The  study  of  harbors  like 
Valparaiso  and  Iquique  will  go  fast.  Rio  is  one  of  the  world’s 
great  harbors.  Do  not  reduce  it  to  a par  with  all  others,  and  dis- 
miss it  with  a sentence. 

Teach  pupils  the  spelling  of  names  as  they  are  met.  Observe 
quickly  the  spelling.  The  teacher  pronounces  distinctly,  by  syllables, 
and  spells.  The  class  repeats.  Do  not  be  afraid  of  concert  recitations. 
Nothing  kills  a recitation  more  certainly  than  the  everlasting  applica- 
tion of  the  formula,  “ State  your  question,  then  call  upon  some  indi- 
vidual to  answer.”  The  work  must  move  forward  rapidly.  Do  not 
be  afraid  of  repetition. 

As  soon  as  you  proceed  to  another  harbor,  for  example  Buenos 
Aires,  review  Rio  by  comparisons.  How  far  from  Rio?  In  what 
direction?  Is  it  land  locked?  What  does  Buenos  Aires  export? 
What  Rio?  Compare  size  of  cities.. 

Do  not  tell  pupils  the  distance  in  miles  between  Rio  and  Buenos 
Aires.  From  the  map  have  them  see  the  latitude  of  each  and  use 
“ nearly  70  miles  ” as  the  unit  of  measure  of  the  distance  between 
them.  Having  learned  the  position  of  Buenos  Aires,  pupils  know 
the  latitude  of  Valparaiso  as  soon  as,  inspecting  the  map,  they 
visualize  its  relative  position.  We  are  all  the  time  building  in  a 
mental  picture  of  South  America  as  a whole  — inductively.  This 
is  the  way  we  get  our  most  usable  knowledge  in  practical  life. 

Study  the  comparative  size  of  the  United  States  and  Brazil,  F 1. 
Come  back  to  this  often  until  the  comparison  is  a working  tool  in 
the  pupil’s  mind. 

The  coffee  industry  may  be  taken  up  next.  In  using  the  pictures, 
first  observe  them.  Differentiate  information  that  can  be  secured 
from  the  picture  from  that  which  is  supplementary  and  expressed  in 
words  only.  Teaching  pupils  how  to  observe  and  how  to  express 
precisely  what  they  see  is  the  chief  aim.  You  are  training  pupils 
how  to  study  geography.  There  is  a vast  difference  between  an 
educated  mind  and  one  filled  with  a hodge-podge  of  unrelated 
information.  It  will  not  be  enough  merely  to  study  what  is  in  the 
pictures.  From  the  books  learn  the  extent  of  the  industry.  Remem- 
ber there  is  a commercial  problem  connected  with  every  product  not 
consumed  locally.  To  what  place  is  it  sent  and  how? 

As  the  study  progresses  pupils  will  realize  that  other  countries  of 
South  America  also  produce  coffee.  Fi  LeY,  Drying  Coffee,  will 


12 


be  used  in  studying  'Peru.  This  will  call  to  mind  the  coffee  raising 
in  Brazil  and  the  more  extended  range  of  the  industry  will  be 
appreciated. 

Highlands  of  Brazil.  From  a map  like  F 2,  on  which  elevations 
are  expressed  by  color,  pupils  acquire  a partial  notion  of  the  areas 
of  highland  and  lowland,  but  do  not  visualize  slope.  Try  them. 
Teach  them  to  read  the  relief  of  a country  by  interpreting  the 
streams  that  flow  through  it.  Have  them  trace  as  exactly  as  possible 
the  main  watershed  of  the  highlands  of  Brazil,  directing  the  pointer 
between  the  sources  of  the  several  rivers.  Lead  them  to  visualize 
small  tributaries  between  the  rivers  actually  shown  on  map  F 4.  Have 
pupils  keep  in  mind  that  water  runs  down  hill.  Have  several  rivers, 
including  those  flowing  south  from  the  highlands  of  Brazil,  traced 
from  mouth  to  source  or  source  to  mouth.  What  does  the  Sao 
Francisco  river  tell  about  the  relief  of  eastern  Brazil?  Account 
for  the  arid  region  of  Brazil  shown  on  map  F 3.  Continue  this  work 
with  other  regions  until  a habit  is  established.  A proper  study  of 
South  America  will  give  a pupil  initiative  in  studying  other  parts 
of  the  earth. 

Since  this  collection  does  not  contain  illustrations  of  cattle  rais- 
ing in  Brazil  it  might  be  better  to  leave  the  topic  until  this  industry 
in  Argentina  has  been  studied  through  pictures  and  then  return  to 
Brazil.  (Only  in  a very  general  way  is  a political  division  to  be 
the  unit  of  study.  Let  the  unit  be  rather  a region,  distinctive  because 
of  its  physical  features,  its  resources  or  its  peculiar  life,  or  an 
industry,  or  some  other  topic.)  But  now  or  later  point  out  the 
cattle  region  on  the  map  and  discuss  it.  Have  in  mind  three  topics 
in  this  connection:  the  type  of  country  adapted  to  cattle  raising;, 
physical  features  of  Brazil;  transportation  facilities.  You  do  not 
need  pictures  for  everything.  Pupils  should  have  picked  up  some 
ideas  on  the  topic  before  reaching  this  point.  To  a fifth  grade  pupil 
some  words  have  already  begun  to  have  content.  In  the  end  words 
are  the  medium  for  expressing  ideas.  But  see  to  it  that  the  pupil 
actually  has  a clear,  vivid  mental  picture.  The  teacher,  of  course, 
must  have  such  a picture  herself.  This  involves  seeing  details  in 
the  whole.  Visualizing  requires  a constructive  attitude  of  mind. 
Your  teaching  is  effective  to  the  degree  to  which  you  produce  it. 

Build  in  further  the  picture  of  Brazil.  The  situation  of  Bahia, 
its  negro  population,  Fc  Bx.  What  nationality  is  represented  by 
Fc  SsY?  As  the  work  progresses  gradually  develop  the  topic 
“ races  and  nationalities  ” ; negroes,  Indians,  whites ; Portuguese, 
Germans,  Italians.  Locate  areas  of  each  on  map. 


13 


Study  the  Amazon  water  system,  chiefly  from  map  but  have 
pupils  find  in  books  and  elsewhere  as  many  pictures  as  possible  in 
addition  to  those  of  the  slides.  Have  these  pictures  analyzed,  read, 
interpreted,  not  looked  at  vaguely.  Study  the  rubber  industry.  The 
pupil  should  be  able  to  construct  a full  and  orderly  report  on  the 
industry.  Where  in  Brazil  rubber  is  found,  by  whom  work  is  done, 
trees,  sap,  smoking  into  balls,  transportation  by  Indians  to  small 
stream,  by  succession  of  different  type  of  boats  to  the  sea,  Manaos 
as  the  center  of  rubber-gathering  industry.  Do  not  permit  yourself 
to  bring  out  all  such  facts  by  separate  questions.  Get  pupils  to  use 
the  mind  constructively  and  recite  on  a topic  following  a suggested 
order.  They  will  do  it  readily  enough  if  accustomed  to  by  practice. 

In  using  Fc  Y6  be  sure  pupils  do  not  call  the  men  negroes.  Note 
distinguishing  characteristics  in  detail.  Discourage  superficial 
glances  at  pictures.  This  picture  shows  a means  of  transportation. 
Begin  to  “ build  in  ” this  general  topic.  Several  other  means  are 
shown  in  the  Brazil  pictures.  Most  pictures  illustrate  more  than 
one  topic,  for  example,  Fc  Y8  shows  a product,  Brazil  nuts,  and  a 
means  of  transportation.  The  value  of  an  observation  depends 
largely  upon  its  being  properly  classified.  Pictures  need  not  always 
be  presented  again.  It  may  be  enough  to  have  them  recalled. 

There  are  three  significant  pictures  of  Manaos.  Study  width  of 
the  Amazon  here,  the  meaning  of  the  floating  pier,  navigation  on 
the  Amazon,  the  excellent  theater  shown  in  Fc  McE.  Arouse  a 
spirit  of  inquiry  and  provide  sufficient  reading  matter.  Refer  to 
table  in  textbook  for  size  of  Manaos. 

The  single  picture  of  cotton  at  Ceara,  Fc  Y5,  may  introduce  the 
fact  that  certain  crops  of  Brazil  such  as  cotton,  grains  and  fruits 
are  like  those  of  the  United  States.  Do  not  lose  sight  of  the  great 
size  of  Brazil.  How  far  is  it  from  Ceara  to  Santos? 

Enough  by  way  of  illustration.  When  you  have  covered  Brazil 
so  far  as  a course  for  elementary  pupils  goes,  check  up  results,  group 
facts,  test  results,  be  sure  pupils  have  read  the  textbook  carefully. 
Brazil  will  take  at  least  three  or  four  days. 

You  will  not  have  completed  the  study  yet,  but  this  country,  half 
of  South  America,  will  come  up  again  and  again  through  com- 
parison before  South  America  is  finished.  The  basis  of  study  will 
be  at  least  partly  established.  Much  depends  upon  the  teacher. 
The  class  period  is  for  teaching.  Do  not  assign  one  day  a page  of 
the  textbook  as  a lesson  and  merely  ask  questions  on  it  the  next. 


14 


Argentina 

We  began  Brazil  with  Rio  because  it  is  an  exceptionally  good 
harbor  to  present  as  a type,  some  of  the  main  features  of  which 
can  be  shown  by  pictures,  and  because  so  much  can  be  associated 
with  it.  Find  a different  point  of  attack  in  Argentina.  Let  it  be 
the  vast  stretches  of  productive  plains.  After  presenting  size  and 
position  through  map  F 45,  use  physical  map  F 2 and  the  pictures 
showing  plains,  Fa  Pa2,  Fa  Pay,  Fa  Y14,  Fa  Y17,  and  Fa  Y21. 

Make  clear  that  these  plains  are  steppes  of  three  main  levels: 
under  500  feet,  500  to  1000,  1000  to  2000  feet.  The  word  pampas 
in  its  more  restricted  use  applies  only  to  the  lowest  of  these  levels 
lying  between  the  Salado  and  the  Rio  Negro.  Consult  F 2 and 
other  physical  maps.  Study  Fa  Pa2.  Locate  Mendosa.  In  what 
direction  is  the  observer  looking?  Note  the  arid  appearance  of  the 
region.  The  vegetation  is  bunch  grass.  Such  a region  furnishes 
some  pasturage  for  sheep. 

It  would  be  as  indefinite  to  say  that  the  prairies  of  the  United 
States  are  in  the  Mississippi  valley  as  that  the  pampas  of  South 
America  are  in  Argentina.  The  pampas  proper  bear  somewhat  the 
same  relation  to  the  higher  plains  bordering  on  the  Andes  that  the 
prairies  bear  to  the  Great  Plains  of  the  United  States. 

Use  rainfall  map  F 3 and  note  grain  lands  along  the  Parana 
(abundant  moisture),  cattle  lands  (less  rain),  sheep  ranches  (least 
rain).  Recall  Fa  Pa2.  Be  sure  pupil  knows  the  mean  rainfall  of 
New  York  State  as  a standard  for  comparison.  Otherwise  the 
figures  for  the  different  districts  of  Argentina  mean  little. 

The  pictures  serve  to  attract  attention.  With  them  can  be  asso- 
ciated the  significant  facts.  But  do  not  fail  to  note  where  the  pic- 
ture was  taken  and  to  locate  the  place  on  the  map.  It  is  not 
memory  of  verbal  statements  we  want  but  mental  pictures.  The 
word  Argentina  should  call  up  a clear  mental  image  of  the  country. 

Study  the  same  series  as  to  remoteness  from  market.  Australia 
and  other  countries  illustrate  the  same  general  rules.  Show  why 
cattle  and  sheep  raising  can  be  carried  on  in  regions  remote  from 
trade  centers.  Agriculture  follows  ranching  as  population  increases. 
Reserve  a full  study  of  sheep  for  Australia,  the  principal  producer. 
Slides  are  available. 

Study  maps  F 43  and  F 45  for  railroads.  Note  how  they  center 
in  Buenos  Aires.  Consider  ease  of  building  — country  level  and 
free  from  forests.  Compare  mileage  with  that  of  Brazil.  Later 
compare  railroad  building  in  Andes  countries.  Give  special  atten- 
tion to  trans-Andine  railroad.  Note  its  east-west  direction;  so  get 


i5 


position  of  Valparaiso.  Compare  number  of  transcontinental  rail- 
roads in  North  America.  What  part  of  Argentina  has  no  railroads? 
Why?  Memorize  latitude  of  Buenos  Aires.  Use  railroad  map, 
F 43,  again  and  again.  South  America  is  as  yet  an  undeveloped 
country  inviting  capital. 

A review  of  the  map  F 45  may  be  used  as  an  introduction  to  a 
full  study  of  Buenos  Aires  — the  great  size  of  the  city,  its  imposing 
public  buildings,  hotels,  parks  etc.  The  capitol  suggests  form  of 
government.  See  if  pupil  recognizes  the  superior  design  of  the 
capitol  at  Washington,  De  Hi 3.  The  custom  house  introduces  the 
question  of  exports  and  imports.  Do  not  have  pupils  memorize  a 
book  statement  of  exports.  Let  them  recall  pictures  of  sheep  and 
cattle.  If  pupils  visualize,  the  word  cattle  carries  with  it  hides, 
meat,  horns,  tallow,  beef  extract,  etc.  Fa  BS  and  Fa  BR  further 
establish  the  railroad  facilities  of  Argentina.  Recall  different  means 
of  transportation  in  Brazil.  South  America  is  yet  a new  continent 
awaiting  development.  Emphasize  immigration,  Fa  BX. 

Every  lesson  through  comparisons  is  a review;  it  is  a meams  of 
building  up  ideas.  The  slides  do  not  show  all  the  facts  to  be  pre- 
sented. Visualization,  not  looking  at  pictures,  is  the  end  sought. 

’Present  with  due  emphasis  the  size  of  the  Parana  river,  and  also 
the  fertile  country  through  which  it  runs.  Show  possibilities  of 
future  development. 

Emphasize  the  position  of  Argentina  in  the  (south)  temperate 
zone.  Have  in  mind  that  the  great  nations  of  the  earth  have  a 
temperate  climate. 

Argentina,  an  agricultural  country ; note  especially  the  absence  of 
coal  and  iron,  essentials  in  manufacturing.  Is  water  power  abun- 
dant? Compare  with  many  swift  streams  of  New  York. 

Argentina,  southern  Brazil  and  Uruguay  constitute  a vast  region 
of  great  latent  wealth. 

Teaching  Points  of  Certain  Slides  — Illustrations 

Fa  Y15  Significance  of  windmill.  Are  windmills  common  in 
your  locality?  Why? 

Fa  Y16  Fences  and  barn.  Where  is  the  scene?  Why  do  you 
not  expect  a cattle  ranch  here? 

Fa  PoY  Oranges.  Compare  place  with  Florida  as  to  latitude 
and  climate.  Why  are  oranges  cheap?  Supply  and 
demand.  Perishability.  Transportation  facilities. 


i6 


Uruguay  and  Paraguay 

Present  Uruguay  and  Paraguay  in  connection  with  Argentina  as 
a part  of  the  study  of  the  Plata  river  system.  Let  the  aim  be  to 
have  pupils  think  of  this  region  as  a whole.  Treat  state  boundaries 
incidentally. 

The  number  of  pictures  available  is  very  limited,  but  the  main 
features  of  these  two  states  are  similar  to  those  illustrated  pic- 
torially  elsewhere  and  can  be  visualized  from  verbal  descriptions. 
Always  keep  pictures  subordinate  to  the  end  of  your  teaching.  The 
ever  present  question  is,  Has  the  pupil  visualized  the  thing  itself? 

If  the  pupil  is  making  progress  in  his  habits  of  study,  he  is 
beginnng  to  ask  himself  certain  kinds  of  questions  when  a new 
object  of  study  is  presented.  What  does  it  look  like?  Just  where 
is  it  situated  or  placed?  How  large  is  it?  What  is  its  form  or 
shape?  Of  what  does  it  consist?  In  case  of  a country,  how  would 
one  get  to  it?  What  sort  of  people  live  there?  What  do  they  do 
for  a living?  What  language  do  they  speak?  What  kind  of  a 
government  do  they  have?  What  are  their  means  of  transporta- 
tion ? What  trade  do  they  have  with  their  neighbor,  etc.  ? 

A school  that  graduates  pupils  without  developing  in  them  an 
initiative  in  asking  themselves  such  questions  has  signally  failed  in 
its  mission  and  at  best  has  given  but  meager  returns  for  a very 
large  expenditure  of  time  and  money.  The  mechanic  is  certain  to 
have  his  work  checked  by  a rigid  standard.  Is  it  accurate?  Is  it 
what  he  was  expected  to  do  ? Let  the  teacher  look  over  the  work 
of  any  class  period  and  ask  herself,  What  is  this  period  worth  in 
real  educational  units?  Verbal  information  in  itself  is  of  very 
little  consequence,  especially  when  expressed  in  isolated  statements. 
Check  up  by  the  vital  questions:  Is  the  pupil  mentally  aggressive? 
Is  he  learning  to  observe?  Is  he  putting  his  observations  together 
and  drawing  significant  conclusions?  Is  he  developing  the  ability 
to  think?  Is  he  gaining  power  to  express  his  ideas  orderly,  clearly, 
vividly?  Do  not  be  impatient  for  immediate  evidence  of  results. 

In  case  of  the  South  American  countries  Paraguay,  Uruguay  and 
Colombia,  test  the  value  of  the  visual  method  as  already  used  by 
noting  the  ability  of  pupils  to  visualize  without  the  aid  of  actual 
pictures.  Pictures  have  not  been  used  educationally  if,  by  their  use, 
pupils  have  not  gained  in  ability  to  visualize  from  verbal  descriptions 
similar  scenes  without  the  aid  of  them. 

But  even  with  these  countries  make  full  use  of  the  maps.  Inter- 
pret them.  The  three  pictures  for  Uruguay,  however,  are  signifi- 
cant and  introduce  factors  not  already  presented. 


i7 


Fj  MA2  A breakwater  — what  it  is,  when  needed ; the  general 
question  of  harbor  improvements. 

Fj  MAi  Note  name  of  vessel.  What  nationality  ? Competition 
of  Europe  and  the  United  States  for  South  American 
trade. 

Fj  X2  Rural  versus  urban  population ; an  agricultural  country. 

Note  the  natural  advantages  of  Paraguay,  its  undeveloped 
resources,  its  favorable  conditions  of  soil  and  climate,  its  possibilities 
of  river  transportation.  Compare  the  Plata  drainage  area  with  that 
of  the  Mississippi. 

Southern  End  of  the  Continent 

Observe  the  boundary  line  (F  4)  between  Argentina  and  Chile, 
but  otherwise  disregard  political  divisions. 

Observe  map  F 5 closely  especially  for  the  Strait  of  Magellan 
and  Tierra  del  Fuego.  From  what  ocean  does  the  strait  begin  on 
the  east?  the  west?  The  strait  may  be  represented  by  three  straight 
lines.  What  is  the  relative  length  of  each?  What  the  direction? 
Make  this  exercise  a test  in  observation.  Have  some  pupil  draw 
lines  on  board.  Note  whether  he  has  observed  the  relative  position 
(latitude)  of  the  eastern  and  the  western  ends.  From  an  inspection 
of  the  map  the  class  can  see  that  the  north-and-south  section  is 
about  a degree  long.  Convert  into  miles. 

Teaching  points  of  Fd  PuA2,  Punta  Arenas.  In  which  direction 
is  the  observer  looking  in  the  picture?  If  there  is  any  hesitation, 
project  F 5 again  and  note  location  of  city.  Lead  pupils  to  see 
snow.  In  what  month  was  the  picture  made?  What  season? 
Where  is  the  sun  with  reference  to  the  observer?  Determine  by 
noting  shadows  made  by  the  houses.  The  aim  is  to  teach  concretely 
that  the  position  of  the  sun  in  the  southern  hemisphere  is  the  oppo- 
site of  that  in  the  northern. 

Fd  PuA.  Kinds  of  ships ; number.  A port  of  call  — why  needed  ? 
A coaling  station  — where  is  the  coal  obtained?  Strait  of  Magellan 
belongs  entirely  to  Chile,  but  it  is  free  to  all  commerce  — freedom 
of  waterways.  Name  other  ship  passages  that  are  free.  The  most 
southern  city  in  the  world.  Use  map  Ez  3.  Compare  latitude  of 
Punta  Arenas  with  that  of  London.  Size  of  city.  Encourage  pupils 
to  consult  tables  in  textbook. 

Fd  Mb2.  Tops  of  partly  submerged  mountains.  Examine  map 
of  west  coast  of  Chile.  Note  latitude  of  Strait  of  Magellan;  mean- 
ing of  snowcapped  peaks  (effect  of  altitude).  Forests  also  tell  of 
abundant  moisture.  Use  rainfall  map. 


i8 


There  is  time  for  all  this,  but  the  teacher  must  know  for  what 
each  picture  is  to  be  used  and  see  that  the  exercise  moves  along 
rapidly.  She  is  chiefly  concerned  with  awakening  ideas,  not  in 
“ hearing  a recitation.” 

Which  part  of  Argentina  is  sparsely  populated?  Inspect  map 
F 45.  Have  pupils  note  where  the  railroads  are.  Let  a pupil  point 
out  on  the  screen  each  city  indicated  on  the  map  for  the  northern 
part,  numbering  in  order  as  he  does  so;  in  the  southern  part.  Train 
in  map  reading.  Do  not  be  content  merely  to  give  information  about 
South  America. 

There  are  some  people  in  this  southern  end  of  the  continent.  Use 
pictures  of  Ona  Indians.  Their  size ; dress ; houses.  How  do  these 
Indians  get  a living?  What  does  the  method  of  living  tell  about 
the  stage  of  civilization?  Compare  Fa  X3  and  Fa  X4.  How  did 
the  Indian  of  Fa  X3  get  the  material  for  his  house?  Have  pupils 
recognize  the  primary  needs  of  food,  clothing  and  shelter. 

In  the  study  of  Indians  of  southern  Argentina,  have  in  mind  the 
topic  “ people  ” and  that  there  are  very  many  Indian  tribes  in 
different  stages  of  civilization  in  South  America. 

Regions  of  Chile 

Note  the  length  of  Chile  compared  with  width.  The  approximate 
latitude  of  the  southern  end  has  been  fixed  in  mind.  Also  the  lati- 
of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  Use  map  F 1 to  get  latitude  of  northern  end 
compared  with  that  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  Get  more  exact  latitude 
from  some  large  scale  map.  Convert  length  of  Chile  in  degrees  into 
miles.  Inspecting  F 1,  compare  with  the  east  and  west  distance 
across  the  United  States,  which  should  already  be  known  or  now 
ascertained.  The  mean  breadth  is  about  70  miles.  Visualize  by 
recalling  some  place  70  miles  from  the  pupil’s  home. 

Think  of  Chile  as  divided  into  three  sections  — southern,  central, 
northern. 

The  southern  section  has  already  been  studied  in  part.  Little 
more  need  be  done  except  to  observe  more  carefully  that  it  is  made 
up  of  islands,  peninsulas  and  channels,  to  note  the  absence  of  towns 
and  to  learn  something  about  the  Araucanian  Indians,  Fd  X3.  Both 
the  northern  and  the  southern  sections  are  very  sparsely  settled. 
After  studying  the  northern  sections  and  by  way  of  recurring  to  the 
study  of  the  southern  section,  bring  out  strongly  the  differing  causes 
of  small  population.  The  northern  section  hot  and  arid,  the 
southern  cold  and  wet. 


19 


In  general,  do  not  try  to  finish  the  study  of  one  section  before 
taking  up  another.  Your  unit  of  study  is  not  a whole  country  but 
rather  a topic  like  climate,  people,  production  or  transportation. 
Comparison  is  one  of  the  most  effective  means  of  developing  clear- 
ness of  ideas.  It  also  involves  a review,  a form  of  review  prefer- 
able to  a going  over  ground  a second  time  in  the  same  manner  as 
at  first. 

In  studying  Fd  SA2  note  not  only  the  progressive  appearance  of 
Santiago,  but  especially  the  mountains  back  of  it.  In  which  direction 
are  you  looking?  Fd  SZi  gives  a still  better  idea  of  the  valley. 
Emphasize  agricultural  interests.  Have  pupils  read  about  products. 
The  plantation  residence  Fd  SZ  tells  of  the  large  estates  that  are 
characteristic  of  the  region.  How  far  are  large  estates  the  rule 
in  the  rural  sections  of  South  America?  Why?  Compare  with 
New  York  State  farms.  What  are  the  teaching  points  of  the 
chamlber  of  deputies,  Fd  SG,  and  of  other  fine  buildings  like  Fd 
SN  and  Fd  SR? 

Compare  Valparaiso,  Fd  VA,  with  Rio  as  to  harbor  conditions. 
Where  are  the  ships?  Number?  What  do  they  carry?  To  what 
countries  do  they  go?  Note  from  Fd  VA2  the  absence  of  a coastal 
plain.  England  and  Germany  have  had  a much  larger  trade  with 
Chile  than  has  the  United  States.  Why?  How  should  the  Panama 
canal  affect  this  trade?  Chife 

Copper  mining,  an  important  industry  in  Brazil  is  not  illustrated 
by  the  slides  in  this  collection.  In  using  these  slides  and  the  notes 
accompanying  them,  the  school  course  of  study  is  not  to  be  over- 
looked. They  emphasize  certain  features.  The  teacher  must 
exercise  her  own  judgment  in  planning  her  work. 

Four  views  of  the  trans-Andine  railroad  are  cataloged  under 
Argentina,  two  under  Chil Q In  teaching  the  topic  they  may  be  thus 
separated  or  all  used  here.  In  any  case  emphasize  its  function  in 
commerce  and  in  uniting  the  people  of  two  countries.  So  use  the 
slides  as  to  leave  the  pupils  with  a vivid  mental  picture  of  the 
character  of  the  road  and  the  engineering  problems  involved.  Com- 
pare the  eastern  and  western  ends  of  the  road,  thus  making  ideas 
clearer  and  providing  for  review.  Early  in  the  course  in  geography 
pupils  should  come  to  recognize  through  such  specific  illustration 
the  significance  of  an  important  transportation  route. 

Slide  Fd  Am8,  The  Christ  of  the  Andes,  offers  an  excellent  means 

* 

of  illustrating  how  nations  are  coming  to  settle  their  disputes.  No 
mere  verbal  statement  about  arbitration  can  leave  upon  pupils  the 
lasting  impression  that  this  picture  may  be  made  to  give. 


20 


Northern  section  — great  aridity,  see  it  in  the  pictures ; absence  of 
trees,  shrubs  and  grass.  Use  map  F 3.  Observe  the  character  of  the 
seaport  Iquique.  Compare  with  Rio.  Emphasize  nitrate  industry. 

Pupils  can  be  interested  in  the  fact  that  Chile  took  the  nitrate  fields 
from  Peru  and  Bolivia  through  war  and  that  the  district  is  a great 
source  of  wealth  for  her.  Use  map  and  slide  Fd  VE. 

What  does  the  method  of  loading  mules  on  steamer  in  Fd  CsY 
tell  about  the  harbor  of  Coquimbo?  Continue  to  compare  the 
harbors  of  the  east  coast  with  those  of  the  west  coast. 

The  West  Coast  Desert 

Extent  100  by  1600  miles. 

Give  considerable  attention  to  developing  a correct  notion  of 
the  characteristic  features  of  a desert  (see  Bowman,  pages  84-87). 
Here  as  elsewhere  have  in  mind  that  you  are  teaching  a geographic 
type  that  will  be  met  in  later  studies.  We  need  have  little  interest 
in  mere  place  geography ; nor  need  anyone  doubt  the  ability  of  pupils 
ten  or  eleven  years  of  age  to  understand  the  main  features  of  a 
desert  if  they  are  presented  vividly  and  objectively. 

Some  features  of  the  west  coast  desert  have  already  been  studied 
under  Chile.  Now  make  the  entire  region  the  unit  of  study.  Some 
of  the  slides  show  conditions  and  there  are  numerous  significant 
pictures  in  the  books  recommended.  Continue  to  examine  maps. 
Subtopics  — amount  of  rainfall  (map  F3),  vegetation,  drinking 
water,  irrigation,  difficulties  of  travel,  resources,  people,  causes  of 
the  desert. 

The  reclaiming  of  this  desert  is  illustrated  by  Ti  SV25,  planting 
sugar  cane.  Reserve  full  study  of  details  of  planting  for  time  when 
sugar  is  the  main  topic.  Here  emphasize  the  favorable  conditions 
for  sugar  production  in  Peru.  Note  especially  the  fact  that  a level 
plain  between  the  mountains  is  irrigated.  The  place  is  a few  miles 
northeast  of  Lima. 

The  Western  Coast  Line 

The  lack  of  bays,  islands  and  promontories.  Seaports  are  open 
roadsteads.  Study  the  method  of  landing  passengers  at  Salaverry, 
Fi  SX,  as  an  example.  Recall  Fd  CsY.  Is  the  coast  stormy,  like 
that  of  North  Carolina,  or  calm? 

Give  special  attention  to  Callao,  the  principal  seaport,  and  Lima, 
the  capital  of  Peru.  Also  to  Molendo  and  Arequipo. 

Review  the  ports  of  northern  Chile. 


21 


Compare  the  length  of  the  coast  of  Peru  with  that  of  the  Atlantic 
coast  of  the  United  States.  The  size  of  each  of  the  South  American 
states  must  be  recurred  to  often  to  establish  a correct  conception  of 
it  — to  have  it  actually  visualized. 

Highlands  of  Bolivia  and  Peru 

There  are  ample  descriptions  in  the  books  and  the  visual  method 
of  presentation  is  illustrated  elsewhere.  This  whole  highland  dis- 
trict is  exceedingly  interesting  and  commercially  important.  A num- 
ber of  the  pictures  are  striking.  It  is  largely  left  to  the  instructor  to 
determine  the  teaching  points  of  each  picture.  Special  note  is  made 
of  the  following. 

Mt  Misti,  Fi  ArZ2,  may  be  the  first  volcano  the  pupils  have  ever 
studied.  Observe  and  account  for  its  form.  Reserve  discussion  of 
causes  for  a later  grade. 

Observatory,  Fi  ArZ.  Why  located  here  — clearness  of  the  air. 

The  engineering  feat  of  the  Oroya  railroads  of  this  region  should 
have  attention.  Keep  before  pupils  what  it  is  that  leads  to  the 
expenditure  of  vast  sums  for  the  construction  of  such  transportation 
facilities  and  the  need  of  more  capital  for  the  full  development  of 
the  mineral  resources  of  these  highlands.  Do  not  fail  to  interpret 
the  meaning  of  all  pictures  used.  Study  also  the  llama  and  its  use  in 
this  region  for  transportation. 

Mining  operations  are  not  fully  shown  by  the  pictures  of  this 
collection.  The  location  of  the  mines  and  certain  surface  views  are 
all  that  can  be  presented  advantageously  to  the  pupils  for  whom  this 
outline  is  prepared.  Make  the  most  of  these. 

Compare  the  highlands  of  Peru  and  Bolivia  with  the  plains  of 
the  Orinoco  and  the  La  Plata  river  system.  While  the  highlands  as 
a whole  are  not  well  adapted  to  agriculture,  several  views  show  that 
there  are  areas  of  fertile  land,  Fi  Hu2,  Fi  Hu5,  Fi  LeY.  What  does 
Fi  Hu3  tell  about  the  state  of  agriculture  ? 

The  population  of  the  region  consists  largely  of  Indians  and  mixed 
blood.  The  range  of  pictures  is  large.  Use  in  a way  to  make  the 
topic  stand  out  in  the  pupil’s  mind. 

The  Incas 

The  stories  of  the  Incas  are  too  fascinating  not  to  have  more  than 
passing  attention. 


22 


The  Plains  of  Peru  and  Bolivia 

Since  the  plains  of  Peru  and  Bolivia  are  now  commercially  of 
little  importance  and  but  sparsely  settled,  one  is  apt  to  lose  sight 
of  their  great  extent.  Study  the  maps.  Visualize  the  situation  when 
transportation  is  more  fully  developed  along  the  line  of  the  two 
great  river  systems  that  begin  in  this  region.  To  the  north  there 
are  vast  forests  of  valuable  timber,  in  the  southeastern  part  of 
Bolivia  grazing  and  agricultural  lands. 

The  picture  of  the  Indian  with  the  blow  pipe,  Fi  X5,  illustrates  the 
primitive  condition  of  the  present  inhabitants  of  the  region. 

Ecuador 

Three  pictures  of  this  country  have  special  teaching  points. 
Ff  Xg  tells  of  pack  animals  as  a means  of  transportation  and  points 
to  the  lack  of  railroads.  The  covering  for  the  legs  of  the  donkey 
introduces  the  idea  of  the  hard  life  of  such  beasts  of  burden  and 
of  the  insect  pests  that  infest  the  hot  region  around  Guayaquil. 

In  connection  with  Ff  X4  take  up  some  discussion  of  educational 
opportunities  in  South  America.  What  other  pictures  of  the  collec- 
tion are  related  to  this  topic? 

Of  what  are  the  houses  in  Ff  CcA  made?  Would  this  material 
be  used  if  forests  were  abundant?  Note  absence  of  trees  over  the 
landscape.  How  do  the  streets  seem  to  be  laid  out?  Why  are  so 
many  of  the  houses  along  the  Andes  built  of  one  story  only. 

The  cacao  pictures  made  in  Trinidad  might  be  used  here  where 
the  industry  is  so  important.  In  any  case  have  pupils  understand  by 
referring  to  the  cacao-producing  countries  in  what  heat  belt  the  tree 
thrives. 

Compare  the  size  of  Ecuador  with  that  of  New  York  State. 

Northern  Countries 

Nearest  to  the  United  States,  but  undeveloped,  hence  little  com- 
merce with  us.  Keep  this  idea  before  the  class.  What  are  the 
possibilities  of  development? 

Begin  with  Fk  X15,  Coast  Range  Mountains.  A certain  teacher  in 
using  this  picture  considered  only  details  relative  to  the  two  men  in 
it  and  the  flowers  in  the  foreground,  not  even  emphasizing  the  char- 
acter of  roads  and  transportation  facilities.  The  significance  of 
the  mountain  range  is  the  main  point.  Locate  the  range  on  a map. 
Have  pupils  see  that  it  is  a barrier  to  trade  between  the  coast  and  the 
interior. 


^3 


Note  this  range  in  Fk  LcA  and  while  having  pupils  understand 
that  La  Guayra  is  the  seaport  of  Caracas,  note  the  absence  of  a 
good  harbor.  With  Fk  LcZ  and  Fk  X16  further  develop  the 
problem  of  transportation.  Study  the  situation  of  Caracas  through 
Fk  CA  and  a map. 

The  part  played  by  Gen.  Simon*  Bolivar  in  freeing  states  of 
South  America  from  Spanish  rule  will  interest  pupils  and  some 
attention  might  be  given  here  to  his  work.  See  Fk  CE.  With  what 
other  .countries  is  his  name  associated? 

Venezuela  means  “ little  Venice.”  What  is  the  application?  Let 
pupils  learn  about  dwellings  on  piles  in  Lake  Maracaibo,  Fk  Mcc). 
What  does  the  picture  tell  of  present  civilization? 

Aim  to  give  a clear  impression  of  the  Orinoco  drainage  area.  Get 
extent  not  by  reciting  figures,  but  through  an  interpretation  of  the 
map,  F 67.  With  the  map  discuss  the  delta.  What  kind  of  vessels 
are  used  on  the  river?  See  Fk  X24.  For  how  many  miles  is 
the  river  navigable?  Lise  Fk  X2,  showing  San  Fernando,  and  locate 
on  map.  How  wide  does  the  river  appear  here  ? Compare  with  some 
stream  known  to  pupils. 

Fk  Xi,  Fk  X35  and  Fk  X3  present  some  characteristics  of  the 
llanos.  Give  ideas  presented  a significant  tropical  grouping.  What 
evidences  do  these  pictures  present  of  lack  of  transportation 
facilities  ? What  is  the  usual  relation  of  population  and  easy  means 
of  travel  and  transportation?  The  picture  of  loading  hides,  Fk 
CuY,  illustrates  not  only  a poor  harbor,  but  represents  a cattle 
product. 

What  is  the  life  of  the  more  wealthy  inhabitants  of  Venezuela? 
Base  the  topic  on  Fk  X7,  Fk  X75  and  Fk  X77.  How  far  do  these 
conditions  prevail  through  the  continent?  Compare  life  among 
the  ldwer  classes,  using  Fk  CuB  and  Fk  X85. 

The  backward  state  of  agriculture  is  illustrated  in  Fk  X4.  First 
analyze  the  picture  — the  kind  of  plow,  the  oxen,  the  bare-footed 
plowman.  From  their  reading  let  pupils  learn  how  far  the  scene 
is  typical. 

What  a row  of  soldiers  is  seen  in  Fk  CrX ! This  is  a good 
picture  with  which  to  associate  some  facts  about  the  government 
of  Venezuela. 

If  the  views  of  salt  gathering  on  the  small  Isle  of  Coche  are 
used,  have  pupils  class  the  product  as  a mineral  resource  and 
ascertain  the  method  of  procuring  it,  namely  by  solar  evaporation. 
Who  are  doing  the  labor? 


24 


Trinidad  belongs  properly  with  the  Lesser  Antilles  but  may  be 
considered  here.  Get  as  clear  an  idea  of  the  asphalt  industry  as 
possible,  distinguishing  what  is  learned  from  the  pictures  from 
what  is  acquired  through  reading  and  from  observation  of  the  uses 
of  asphalt.  Locate  a district  in  Venezuela  that  produces  asphalt. 
Note  that  this  is  a mineral  resource. 

The  picture  of  rubber  trees  serves  to  review  the  rubber  industry 
and  introduces  the  idea  of  a plantation. 

The  two  views  of  cacao  should  be  observed  here,  but  pupils  need 
to  go  to  their  books  to  learn  which  of  the  countries  are  the  chief 
producers  of  cacao.  Note  that  cacao  pods,  like  apples,  vary  in 
color  according  to  variety.  Why  do  the  pods  grow  on  the  trunk 
of  the  tree?  How  large  are  they? 

The  Guianas  are  of  little  commercial  importance  and  do  not 
require  much  attention.  The  five  pictures  offered  are,  however, 
significant.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  white  clothes  worn  in  Fgc 
AX?  Do  not  begrudge  the  time  required  to  locate  the  scene  on 
a map.  Associate  those  white  clothes  with  latitude.  The  pictures 
of  Indians  and  of  the  negro  are  good  studies  of  races  in  the  Guianas 
and  of  their  food,  clothing,  shelter  etc. 

Reorganization  of  Ideas 

Now  is  the  time  to  group  under  appropriate  headings  the  facts 
that  have  been  studied  inductively.  Consider  such  topics  as  sea- 
ports, harbors,  resources,  exports,  imports,  transportation  (land  and 
water),  governments,  countries  (their  relative  size  and  boundaries), 
races,  nationalities,  drainage,  mountain  ranges,  mountain  peaks, 
plains,  zones,  climate,  rainfall,  plant  life,  and  animal  life.  This 
is  the  study  of  the  “ continent  as  a whole  ” that  was  omitted  at 
the  beginning. 

This  grouping  of  the  facts  learned  involves  a review  and  is  a 
much  more  valuable  exercise  than  going  over  the  study  of  the 
continent  in  the  same  manner  as  at  first.  Selected  slides  may  be 
used  for  the  several  topics,  pupils  explaining  the  significance  of 
each  in  relation  to  the  topic  under  consideration.  The  exercise 
should  move  rapidly  and  in  a way  to  serve  as  a test  of  each  pupil’s 
comprehension  of  the  subject.  There  is  to  be  no  development  of 
specific  facts.  The  whole  aim  should  be  to  organize  the  knowledge 
already  acquired. 

Use  of  Drill  Map 

Begin  the  use  of  the  drill  map,  F 42,  about  a week  before  the 
course  is  completed.  The  map  is  without  names.  It  should  be 


25 


covered  ddily.  But  little  time  is  required.  Let  pupils  recite  in 
rotation,  the  second  one  rising  as  the  first  is  taking  his  seat.  If 
a pupil  can  not  answer  immediately,  he  fails.  Do  not  wait  for  an 
answer.  In  this  way  cover  countries,  mountains,  plains,  rivers, 
cities,  the  products  of  a district,  etc.  Point  to  each  and  have  pupil 
name ; name  and  have  pupil  point  to  each. 

Results 

Do  not  expect  all  pupils  to  do  equally  well  under  this  method  of 
instruction.  The  dull  pupil’s  interest  will  be  aroused  and  he  will 
actually  get  much  benefit  from  this  method.  But  the  results  will 
be  most  noticeable  in  the  bright  pupil.  The  nearest  approach  to 
uniformity  of  results  can  be  secured  by  having  pupils  memorize  the 
words  of  a book. 

List  of  slides 

This  list  of  slides,  with  brief  titles,  is  given  for  reference.  It 
is  expected  to  aid  teachers  in  planning  and  checking  work.  It 
contains  179  titles,  of  which  39  do  not  appear  in  the  1918  edition 
of  List  28;  that  list  in  turn  contains  52  titles  not  given  here.  This 
special  collection  of  slides  is  furnished  unbroken  to  schools  wishing 
to  teach  South  America  by  the  method  here  illustrated. 

Call  no. 

De  P15  The  Pan  American  Union  Building.  Washington 

Maps 

Ez  3 Trade  Routes  Shortened  by  Panama  Canal 

F 1 South  America  — Relative  Size  of  Brazil  and  United  States 

F 2 Physical  Map  of  South  America 

F 3 Annual  Rainfall  and  Winds  in  South  America 

F 4 Political  Map  of  South  America 

F 43  Railroad  Map  of  South  America 

F 45  Argentina,  Chile  and  Uruguay 

F 5 Southern  Extremity,  Magellan’s  Route 

F 55  Peru  and  Bolivia 

F 6 Colombia,  Ecuador  and  Panama 

F 65  Venezuela  and  Guiana 

F 67  Relief  Map  of  Venezuela 

F 7 Portion  of  La  Plata  Drainage  Area 

F 42  Drill  Map  of  South  America 

Argentina 

Fa  BH  Government  House.  Buenos  Aires 
Fa  BG  Capitol.  Buenos  Aires 

De  H13  Capitol.  Washington 

Fa  BC  Plaza  del  Congreso.  Buenos  Aires 


26 


Call 

no. 

Fa 

BG6 

Fa 

BB 

Fa 

BS 

Fa 

BR 

Fa 

BP 

Fa 

BDi 

Fa 

BEs 

Fa 

BDp 

Fa 

BX 

Fa 

PoA 

Fa 

P0B4 

Fa 

PoY 

Fa 

Pc2 

Fh 

Pc2 

Fa 

Pn2 

Fa 

Ig 

Fa 

Ig2 

Fa 

Pa2 

Fa 

Pa7 

Fa 

X3 

Fa 

X4 

Fa 

Yl2 

Fa 

Yl4 

Fa 

YI5 

Fa 

YI6 

Fa 

YI7 

Fa 

Y2I 

Fa 

Y3 

Fa 

Am5 

Fa 

Am3 

Fb 

11 

Fb 

II2 

Fb 

Ti2 

Fb 

Ti6 

Fb 

LA 

Fb 

LC 

Fb 

LX3 

Fb 

LY 

Fb 

X2 

Fb 

x3 

Fb 

X24 

Fc 

RA 

Fc 

R2 

Fc 

ra2 

Custom  House.  Buenos  Aires 

River  Boats  at  Dock.  Buenos  Aires 

Retiro  Station.  Buenos  Aires 

Railroad  Clearing  House  Building.  Buenos  Aires 

Plaza  Hotel.  Buenos  Aires 

Avenue  of  Royal  Palms.  Buenos  Aires 

National  Monument.  Buenos  Aires 

Recoleta  Cemetery.  Buenos  Aires 

Emigrants  from  Northern  Europe.  Buenos  Aires 

Posadas 

View  across  the  River.  Posadas 

Piles  of  Oranges  on  Ground.  Posadas 

Steamer  near  shore;  Travelers.  Upper  Parana  River 

Boats  Coming  to  Meet  Steamer.  Paraguay 

View  down  Iguazu  River,  Junction  of  Three  Countries 

Map  of  Iguazu 

Iguazu  Falls 

Pampas  and  Foothills  of  the  Andes 

Supplies  Hauled  across  the  Pampas 

An  Ona  Archer  and  Family.  Tierra  del  Fuego 

An  Ona  Woman  and  Huts.  Tierra  del  Fuego 

Huge  Piles  of  Wheat.  Near  Buenos  Aires 

Herd  of  Cattle  Grazing.  Province  of  Buenos  Aires 

Barn  and  Windmill  on  Large  Estate 

Viewing  Prize  Bulls 

Beef  Cattle  on  Pampas  Plain 

Hauling  Wool  over  the  Plain 

Loading  Lighter  with  Bales  of  Wool 

Train  at  Station.  Trans-Andine  Railroad 

Beginning  of  Cog  Road.  Trans-Andine  Railroad 

Bolivia 

Mt  Illimani 
Yungas  Pass 

Lake  Titicaca,  Southern  End 
Huts  and  Balsas.  Lake  Titicaca 
Panorama  of  La  Paz 

Long  Narrow  Street  and  Natives.  La  Paz 

Native  Boys  in  Ponchos.  La  Paz 

Llamas  in  Street.  La  Paz 

Cholas  in  Bright  Dresses  and  Shawls 

An  Indian  Man 

Chola  in  Gala  Attire 


Brazil 

Panorama  over  City:  Harbor  Entrance.  Rio  de  Janeiro 

Map  of  Harbor.  Rio  de  Janeiro 

Panorama  of  City  and  Harbor.  Rio  de  Janeiro 


*7 


Call  no. 

Fc  R4 
Fc  RA4 
Fc  RC3 
Fc  BA 
Fc  BX 
Fc  Ys 
Fc  McB 
Fc  McB2 
Fc  McE 
Fc  Y15 
Cd  Y2 
Fc  Y2 
Fc  Y4 
Fc  Y44 
Fc  SeB 
Fc  SsY 
Fc  Y6 
Fc  Y7 
Fc  Y8 
Fc  X2 


Fga  Xi 
Fga  X2 


Fd  CsY 
Fd  VA 
Fd  VA2 
Fd  VE 
Fd  SA2 
Fd  SG 
Fd  SN 
Fd  SR 
Fd  SZi 
Fd  SZ 
Fd  Am6 
Fd  Am8 
Fd  L0Y2 
Fd  Mb2 
Fd  Sm2 
Fd  PuA2 
Fd  PuA 
Fd  X3 
Fd  AoA 
Fd  TqA 
Fd  Y2 


Map  of  City.  Rio  de  Janeiro 

View  from  near  Base  of  Sugar  Loaf.  Rio  de  Janeiro 

First  of  March  Street.  Rio  de  Janeiro 

Upper  and  Lower  Levels  of  City.  Bahia 

Negro  Women  in  Street.  Bahia 

Negroes  Piling  Bales  of  Cotton.  Ceara  State 

Public  Square.  Manaos 

Floating  Pier.  Manaos 

Monument  Commemorating  Opening  of  Amazon.  Manaos 

Coffee  Blossoms.  Santos 

Two  Year  Old  Coffee  Tree.  Africa 

Large,  Young  Coffee  Plantation.  Santos 

Hauling  Bags  of  Coffee  Berries.  Santos 

Coffee  Drying  Floor.  Santos 

Steamers  Being  Loaded  with  Coffee.  Santos 

Cheese  Market.  Sao  Paulo 

Natives  Carrying  Balls  of  Crude  Rubber 

Sacks  of  Yerba  Mate 

Boat  with  Brazil  Nuts.  On  the  Amazon 

Transportation  Facilities  in  Interior  of  Bahia  State 

British  Guiana 
Carib  Indian  Village 
Carib  Indian  Shooting  Fish 

Chile 

Loading  Mules  onto  Steamer 
Harbor.  Valparaiso 
Panorama  of  Valparaiso 
Naval  Monument.  Valparaiso 
Panorama  of  Santiago 
Congressional  Building.  Santiago 
National  Museum.  Santiago 
Private  Residence.  Santiago 

The  Central  Valley  between  Santiago  and  the  Andes 
Planatation  Residence.  Near  Santiago 
Train  Leaving  Tunnel.  Trans- Andine  R.  R. 

“The  Christ  of  the  Andes.”  Trans-Andine  R.  R. 

Coal  Mine.  Lota 

Mountains  along  Straits  of  Magellan 
Guia  Narrows,  Smyth’s  Channel 
Panorama  of  Punta  Arenas 
Roadstead  of  Punta  Arenas 
Hut  of  Araucanian  Indians 
Panorama  of  Antofagasta 
Panorama  of  Iquique 
Blast  in  Nitrate  Fields 


28 


Call  no. 

Fd  Yi 

Fd  Y3 

Fd  Y34 
Fd  Y36 
Fd  Y4 

Diagram  of  Nitrate  Bed 

Man  Working  in  Nitrate  Field 

Hauling  Carts  Filled  with  Nitrate 

Portable  R.  R.  in  Nitrate  Fields 

Settling  Pans  of  Nitrate  Factory 

Fgc  AX 
Fgc  X21 
Fgc  X6 

Dutch  Guiana 

Dutch  Commandant  and  Family.  Albina 

Bush  Negro  Making  a Canoe 

Carib  Indian  Village 

Ff  CcA 

Ff  X9 

Ff  InG 

Ff  X2 

Ff  X4 

Ecuador 

Panorama  of  Canar 

Donkey  with  Pack  Saddle 

Ruins  of  Inca  Fortress 

Boy  and  Little  Sister  on  Way  to  Market 

School  Girls.  Quito 

Fi  ArZ2 
Fi  ArZ 

Fi  CcB 

Fi  CfZ 

Fi  H112 

Fi  HuA 

Fi  Hu3 

Fi  Hu4 

Fi  Hu5 

Fi  LC3 

Fi  LX 

Fi  LX2 

Fi  LeY 

Ti  SV25 

Fi  MoA 

Fi  PcY 

Fi  Pv6 

Fi  SX 

Fi  TrC 

Fi  0r2 

Fi  Or4 

Fi  Or6 

Fi  Or8 

Fi  X5 

Fi  Z2 

Fi  In2 

Fi  Ins 

Fi  In6 

Fi  In63 

Peru 

Mt  Misti  from  Arequipa 

Harvard  Observatory.  Near  Arequipa 

Passenger  Landing  Pier.  Callao 

Rio  Blanco  Smelter.  Near  Cerro  del  Pasco 
Farming  District.  Huancayo  Valley 

Street  and  Market  Place.  Huancayo 

Plowing  with  Oxen.  Huancayo  Valley 

Wheat  Field  and  R.  R.  Train.  Huancayo  Valley 
Swing  Bridge.  'Huancayo  Valley 

Plaza  Bolognesi.  Lima 

Woman  Vegetable  Vendor.  Lima 

Bull  Ring.  Lima 

Drying  Coffee.  La  Merced 

Planting  Sugar  Cane.  Peru 

Mining  Town.  Morococha 

Ginning  Cotton.  Palpa 

Thatched  Houses  in  Apurimac  River  Valley 
Landing  Passengers  from  Steamer.  Salaverry 
Unpaved  Sandy  Street.  Trujillo 

Tunnels.  Oroya  R.  R. 

Switchback.  Oroya  R.  R. 

Lake  and  Mountain  View.  Oroya  R.  R. 
Mountain  Scenery.  Near  Morococha 

Blow-pipe  Indian.  Amazon  Valley 

Working  Guano.  Pur.ta  Lobos 

Walls  of  Inca  Fortress.  Cuzco 

Chief  Temple.  Machu  Picchu 

Citadel  of  Ollantaytambo 

Street  in  Inca  City.  Ollantaytambo 

29 


Uruguay 


Call  no. 

Fj  MAi 

Fj  MA2 

Fj  X2 

Panorama  of  Montevideo 

New  FI  arbor.  Montevideo 

Countryman  in  Bombachas 

Fk  CuB 
Fk  CuY 
Fk  CA 

Fk  CE 

Fk  X77 

Fk  X75 

Fk  X7 

Fk  X4 

Fk  LcA 

Fk  X16 

Fk  X15 

Fk  LcZ 

Fk  Mc9 

Fk  X24 

Fk  X2 

Fk  Xi 

Fk  X35 

Fk  X85 

Fk  Z2 

Fk  Z22 

Fk  Z24 

Fk  CrX 
Nu  Cmi 

Venezuela 

Unpaved  Street.  Cumana 

Loading  Fiides  onto  Government  Steamer.  Cumana 
Panorama  of  Caracas 

Bolivar  Statue.  Caracas 

Men  in  Club  FFouse.  Caracas 

Typical  Patio 

A Building  of  a Ffacienda'.  Near  Caracas 

Man  Plowing  with  One-handled  Plow 

Shipping  in  Open  Roadstead.  La  Guayra 

Pack  Train  Bringing  Cacao  to  La  Guayra 

Trail  through  Coast  Range  Mountains.  Near  La  Guayra 
Railroad  Along  Mountainside.  Near  La  Guayra 

Pile  Dwellings  in  Lake  Maracaibo 

River  Boat  on  the  Orinoco 

Boat  Taking  on  Cargo.  :San  Fernando  de  Apure 
Transporting  Supplies  over  the  Llanos 

Llanero  Crossing  Flooded  Country.  Central  Venezuela 
Carib  Indians.  On  Bank  of  the  Orinoco. 

Salt  Gatherers.  Isle  of  Coche 

Native  Women  Carrying  Bags  of  Salt 

Loading  Bags  of  Salt  onto  Steamer 

Soldiers.  Cristobel  Colon 

Condor. 

Eu  TY 

Eu  TY2 
Nn  Ca64 
Nn  Ca7 
Nn  Ru7 

Trinidad 

Pitch  Lake 

Digging  Asphalt 

Cacao  Tree  Trunk 

Husking  Cacao 

Rubber  Plantation 

